Section 0: Problem

2023 has been announced the hottest year on record as claimed by NOAA Climate (Source 1). Climate change is happening and it is more dangerous than ever. We have to address this problem before it's too late to go back. A big part of the solution to climate change is to drastically reduce nonrenewable energy usage.Our mass production of carbon dioxide being pumped into the atmosphere is heating up the earth, and it is not for the better. In fact carbon dioxide from fossil fuels and industrial processes are responsible for 65% of all global greenhouse gas emissions in the world (see Figure 1 in data for chart). If we want to stop global warming one of the biggest steps we must take is to find a renewable energy replacement for fossil fuels and industrial processes. Nuclear energy could be the key we need to make this dream a possibility. In this project I will be explaining, exploring, and discussing the topic of thorium molten salt reactors, and if they could make an environmental impact.

 

Guiding Question:

Should we start to implement the use of molten thorium salt reactors as a susatainable green energy source?

 

Thesis Statement:

Future use of nuclear energy from molten thorium salt reactors is the solution to powering growing cities greenly.

 

 

Overview

In this project I will be explaining, discussing and exploring the world of thorium molten salt reactors. This will include a comprehensible breakdown of how they work, their benefits and disadvantages, and future theories of real life application to our world. The bulk of the work will be found in the research section. Throughout there will be research references to collected data (including diagrams, flow charts, tables, graphs, etc) which will all be organized into the CYSF data section. This projects research will be carried out by three main sections:
- Reasoning (Section: 0 in Problem)
- Research (Section:1-4 in Research)
- Application (Section:5 in Research)

See below for section details

Research Outline

Problem:

Section 0: Problem

Research:

Section 1: Molten salt reactors (MSR)

• 1.A Introduction to MSRs
• 1.B How MSRs function
• 1.C Molten salt breeder reactors (MSBR)
• 1.D Liquid fluoride thorium reactors (LFTRs)

 

Section 2: Thorium

• 2.A Introduction to thorium
• 2.B thorium fuel cycle  

 

Section 3: Benefits of using thorium molten salt reactors

• 3.A Environmental Benefits
  • Point 1: No Carbon Emissions
  • Point 2: High Heat and Efficiency 
  • Point 3: Low Nuclear Waste
• 3.B Safety Benefits 
  • Point 1: No Chance of Overheating
  • Point 2: No Risk of Radioactive Element Escape into Atmosphere or pressurized explosion
• 3.C Thorium benefits  
  • Point 1:  High Abundance and Accessibility
  • Point 2: Low Cost
  • Point 3: Safe Mining

 

Section 4: Disadvantage of Molten Thorium Salt Reactors

• 4.A Corrosion of Materials 
   

Section 5: Application to the  Real World

• 5.A Direction for Future Energy 
• 5.B Use
• 5.C Application in Canada
• 5.D Application to Other Countries 

 

Data:

1. Definitions

2. Figures
 

Conclusion:

Section 6: Conclusion
 

Citations:

1. Sources

2. Figure Sources

 

Section 1: Molten Salt Reactors

Section 1.A Introduction to Molten Salt Reactors (MSRs)

During the late 1940’s a scientist for the 'Manhattan Project' – Eugene Wigner – created the design of the first molten salt reactor. In 1965, after the war and the end of the Manhattan Project, the first molten salt reactor experiment was built in Oak Ridge, Tennessee. Unfortunately, 4 years later the experiment stopped running and most of the other research on molten salt reactors slowly came to a stop in the U.S. by the 1980’s due to high experimentation costs.

Now all these years later the topic is being revisited as a solution to our world's green energy problem. But firstly, what is a molten salt reactor? A molten salt reactor, or MSR, is a nuclear fission reactor. Molten salt reactors produce high efficiency nuclear energy, and have many beneficial attributes in accordance with cleaner and greener energy which will be discussed in the following sections. As opposed to the conventional nuclear plants in use today, MSRs do not contain solid nuclear fuel. Instead the fundamental design of all MSRs is to use molten salt – a high temperature liquid-salt mixture – and dissolve the nuclear fuel (def. 1) into it. Because the salt is in a liquid form it is also used as a coolant in the reactor.

 Section 1.B How A Basic MSR Functions

The main aim of molten salt reactors is to create thermal energy which can be converted into electricity. To do this inside the reactor core, where the molten salt and nuclear fuel is found, a nuclear chain reaction takes place called nuclear fission (def. 2). This chain reaction generates heat and the device called the ‘neutron moderator’ inside the reactor core lets the salt solution discharge at high temperatures and low pressure. The molten salt is kept at 700°C or above. After the reaction has happened, the liquid salt flows through a pipe that passes through the heat exchanger containing the coolant salt. The coolant salt contains no nuclear fuel, just the salt solution. This allows time for the reaction to slow down and avoid generating too much heat at once. The coolant salt heats up and flows into the second heat exchanger with water pipes in it. The water evaporates into steam as it is heated, and turns a big turbine. The turbine has a shaft that rotates a generator to produce electricity (for a diagram see Figure 2 in data).

Section 1.C Molten Salt Breeder Reactors (MSBR)

There are many different types of molten salt reactors including molten salt breeder reactors (MSBR). A molten salt breeder reactor is a slightly more complex MSR then the basic one described above. “Instead of a single fluid system… a second molten salt fluid is introduced for the breeding of fissile isotopes,” states the University of Calgary's Energy Education article on molten salt reactors (Source 2). This means that there is an added system inside the MSR to transmute non-fissile materials into fissile materials also known as the nuclear fuel (to learn more go to section 2.B). These two systems interact and can create a longer fuel life and lessen the quantity of fuel wastage. 

Section 1.D Liquid Fluoride Thorium Reactors (LFTRs)

Liquid fluoride thorium reactors (LFTR), or more informally known as thorium molten salt reactors (I will be using these terms interchangeably throughout the project), are a type of molten salt breeder reactors. This specific kind of reactor uses thorium and turns it into uranium that is the nuclear fuel. To do this the non-fissile thorium will be hit with a neutron catalyzing a series of reactions and beta decays (def. 3) inside the reactor resulting in the production of fissile uranium isotope (see section 2.B for more). The uranium can then be extracted and placed into the second loop, that is fissile, to undergo nuclear fission. After the fission of the nuclear fuel, uranium is complete. The excess neutrons get placed back into the first non-fissile loop with more non-fissile thorium, sparking the whole reaction over again and  creating a circuit. The results of this circuit are a longer life cycle of the fuel reducing the amount of waste.
 

Section 2: Thorium

2.A Introduction to Thorium

Thorium (Th) is element 90 on the periodic table of elements. It is a naturally occurring radioactive metal. Naturally occurring thorium is found in these various isotope formations: Th-232, Th-230, and Th-228. Thorium-232 is what is used in MSRs because it has the ability to turn into uranium-233. The half life of thorium-232 is 14 billion years, which is great for nuclear energy production. Having a long half life allows us to have stability when using it as a nuclear fuel, by knowing that it will not undergo radioactive decay very quickly. In other words, it will last longer. Thorium-232 is also the most common isotope of thorium found naturally according to nuclear physicist Elina Charatsidou on her video entitled “Nuclear Physicist Explains-What are Thorium Reactors?”(Source 3).

 2.B Thorium Fuel Cycle

The fuel cycle of thorium-232 is what creates the nuclear fuel for thorium reactors. To do this the thorium must undergo a series of reactions. Whereas thorium-232 isotope is not fissile when a neutron hits it. It can capture the neutron and transmute, by beta decay, into a different element. So once the neutron hits thorium-232 it will become thorium-233 that will beta decay into protactinium-233, which then beta decays into uranium-233. Uranium-233 is a fissile material, meaning it can undergo nuclear fission (def.2) when a neutron hits it. This is how nuclear fuel is made. (For illustration see Figure 3).

 

Section 3: Benefits of Thorium Molten Salt Reactors

3.A Environmental Benefits

Point 1: No Carbon Emissions

Thorium molten salt reactors (LFTRs) are an efficient and cleaner alternative to the fossil-fuel energy we use a lot of currently. One of the reasons these reactors are extremely environmentally friendly is because they produce no greenhouse gas emissions according to the International Atomic Energy Agency (Source 4). 

Point 2: High Heat and Efficiency 

The high temperature operation of LFTRs allows us to use their clean energy for high-temperature process heat applications that currently need fossil fuels, like industrial heat applications. Whereas other renewable energy sources haven't been able to due to their lower efficiency. (For example see Figure 4 in the data section). 

Point 3: Low Nuclear Waste

Another environmental benefit of thorium molten salt reactors is that they produce far less nuclear waste then solid nuclear fuel reactors used today. No use of solid fuel means that we don't need to create, concentrate or get rid of excess nuclear build up. In fact LFTRs can repurpose the nuclear waste back into the reaction because they are a breeder reactor. Waste created from traditional uranium reactors, both previously and presently used, requires long-term storage that is usually underground because we haven't discovered a way to dispose of it yet.

3.B Safety Benefits 

Point 1: No Chance of Overheating

LFTRs operate at high temperatures which increases the efficiency, but can increase risk of overheating thus causing an explosion. However in MSRs there is a drainage safety system put in place. The freeze plug and dump tanks (see figure 2 for diagram) eliminate the risk of a core meltdown (def. 4). In the event of the reactor core overheating the freeze plug, made of frozen salt, will melt under the added heat opening a passageway to the emergency dump tanks which the molten salt can pour into. This makes it super safe to be in close proximity to humans. Unlike other reactors, MSRs cannot result in a core meltdown disaster like Chernobyl.

Point 2: No Risk of Radioactive Element Escape into Atmosphere or Pressurized Explosion

 A safety feature of LFTRs is that there is no pressurized water, which means no chance of pressurized explosion, like the commonly used pressurized boiling reactor (PWR). Finally, radioactive caesium, iodine, and strontium, which are dangerous to living things if escaped, are ionically bound in the molten salt. The potential risk of these radioactive elements becoming airborne is nearly eradicated because of the ionic binding. The binding is incredibly strong and will not allow any radioactive elements that could be a danger to us be released. 

3.C Thorium benefits 

Point 1: High Abundance and Accessibility

The main reason thorium is so great is because it is extremely abundant and accessible. “Thorium-232 has a longer half life than uranium and is three times more common than uranium,” explains scientist Kirk Sorensen during his presentation at TedX (Source 5). We will never have to worry about thorium shortages because it is incredibly plentiful and a little of it goes a long way. Thorium molten salt reactors consume almost 98% of the thorium given, instead of the consumed 1%-5% of uranium in the common uranium reactors used today. An interesting statistic to demonstrate how big of an impact a tiny amount of thorium in a MSR can have, by an article from website Thorium Molten Salt Reactor (Source 6), is “the yearly consumption of electricity of the average affluent person (western standards of living) requires one gram of thorium per year.” The estimated total of the world’s thorium is 6,355,000 tonnes as specified by World Nuclear Association (Source 7). 

Point 2: Low Cost

Another benefit is that these reactors use the thorium in its natural state, which means no extra cost to concentrate it into solid fuel rods. In fact, using thorium cheapens the expenses. According to an article from Power Engineering it is “$30/kg” USD for thorium-232 and “if thorium becomes popular, this cost will only decrease as thorium is widely available anywhere in the earth’s crust,” (Source 8). This means that the more thorium reactors we have the cheaper the thorium will become! 

Point 3: Safe Mining

Mining thorium is safe. Mining and extracting uranium is more complex and more dangerous, while thorium is relatively simple. Uranium, when mined, can expose the environment and the workers to harmful radioactive substances, including “radioactive dust, radon gas, water-borne toxins, and increased levels of background radiation,” states National Institutes of Health (Source 9). While rare-earth metal mining has mined thorium unintentionally for decades no use was really seen for it. 

Section 4: Disadvantage of Molten Thorium Salt Reactors

4.A Corrosion of Materials 

I will now be addressing one of the main problems of molten salt reactors. The molten salts inside the reactor core are corrosive. Meaning that it is difficult to contain them for longer periods of time because the salts degrade most materials over time. However there are future solutions that, with proper advancements in material sciences, can be implemented. An article on the Thorium Molten Salt Reactor website suggests that “this dilemma may be overcome by developing numeric models for salt behavior, neutronics, materials behavior and salt/materials interactions, accompanied by assumption validation by representative testing,” (Source 6). Advancements and research into material sciences can and will help to address this problem with proper ground work, knowledge, participation, and funding. 

 

Section 5: Application to the Real World

This section will present my theories based on research I have collected on future ways to implement the use of these reactors. These theories are not proven, just theoretical possibilities.

5.A Direction for Future Energy 

As our planet is in decline, environmentally friendly and renewable energy is more important than ever. We are approaching a climate crisis, and to avoid endangering us and the rest of life on earth we need to lower our carbon emissions. Other renewable sources like solar and wind, have yet to cut it and the clock is running out. If molten thorium salt reactors were successfully put to use around the world we could make a lasting impact on climate change without reducing the amount of power we consume (see section 3.A). Which is why many scientists are starting to revisit the idea of nuclear energy.  “Achieving deep cuts in emissions is going to require more intensive use of renewables, nuclear, and carbon capture storage” claims environmental journalist  Michael Shellenberger during his  presentation at TedXBerlin (Source 10). Which means we will need higher efficacy methods then the ones currently being used now. 

5.B Use 

Firstly, molten salt thorium reactors are compatible for cities and industrialized areas. Since they are high efficiency, they have the ability to produce the desired energy amount for many different things with different energy needs. For example a molten thorium salt reactor could fuel a manufacturing plant or residential facility. They are scalable to fit the needs of the energy demands. This scalability comes in handy since thorium molten salt reactors are so safe they can be kept in close proximity to humans. With no worries of pressurized explosions, core meltdowns (overheating) and escaping radioactive waste (see section 3.B for more) we have no reason to build these reactors away from communities. In fact we could build them inside of the city. This way instead of one massive reactor that powers the whole city we could have many smaller reactors scattered throughout the city of varying sizes to meet the energy demands of specific areas. This is very beneficial for two reasons: 

One is that high density spaces, like cities, have limited space. With little space a big reactor could not fit inside a city, but plenty of modular reactors can be distributed throughout the city. And if the demands for energy increase modular thorium molten salt reactors can be stacked beside or on top of each other. Thorium molten salt reactors also can be built underground. This can also be a beneficial option in places short of space.  

The second reason why lots of smaller reactors spread out throughout a city is that there is less loss of energy during the transfer. When the molten salt reactor is near the thing it needs to fuel there is less distance for the energy to travel. Resulting in maintaining more of energy produced during the travel from source to destination.

 

5.C Application in Canada

Canada is the eighth country in the world for thorium abundance (see figure 5 in data for the chart). With the resources we have in Canada we could successfully source enough thorium to fuel the entire country for years to come. This access to energy could let us boost our manufacturing industry which would in turn boost the Canadian economy. We may also be able to sell some of our thorium to other countries as an export commodity. As we can see there are several economic advantages for Canada if we were to make the switch to molten salt reactors. 

Molten thorium salt reactors also may be of good use in Canada because many regions of the country have cold winter seasons. So we require high amounts of heat and electricity production to heat all of our homes and facilities. Which in turn increases our carbon footprint. In addition, combining Canada’s cold winters with the molten salt reactors provide the possibility for cogeneration heating. Cogeneration heating takes the excess heat made from reactors and repurposes it into heating systems; this means we could generate both heat and electricity at the same time with less waste. If a ‘cogen’ thorium molten salt reactor was successfully built, it would produce both heat and electricity for our cold plagued cities during the winter. With the option of molten thorium salt reactors we may be able to sustainably supplement our nonrenewable energy with an eco-friendly energy source.

5.D Application to Other Countries

As I previously stated thorium molten salt reactors are very beneficial in places short of space. In highly populated industrial oriented countries like China and India thorium reactors could be a great advancement for a few main reasons. 

Firstly, these countries have a very large demand for energy and are very crowded. With tens of thousands of factories producing carbon and fossil fuel emissions these countries have very high population rates (see figure 6). LFTRs would allow for high energy production within their little space with, most importantly, fewer pollution emissions.This way no production of goods would have to be sacrificed. LFTRs could also be implemented inside the cities as well as industrial areas. I believe the modular design and potential to go underground would be the best future solution for these metropolises. As the population has grown the lack of space is causing these countries to start expanding vertically, which the thorium molten salt reactors could easily conform to. One could be stacked on top of another, or built beside each other underground. This way as the cities grow we can build more reactors as the energy demands increase. The ability to power both cities and industrial factories greenly in these high pollution rate countries would impact our planet greatly. 

Secondly with India being first in the world for thorium abundance and China being eleventh (see figure 5) this would allow these countries to have energy independence. This means that they would be able to source their own energy without purchasing it from countries. Energy independence is something that could greatly affect the quality of lives of all citizens, especially in countries with poorer living conditions because more money can be put into other services instead of energy purchases. Energy independence could lend a helping hand to boost the economy for the benefit of all. Finally, molten thorium salt reactors would provide these countries with better health conditions. Less air pollution and cleaner factory atmospheres would increase the health and lifestyle of all workers and citizens. Think about it, would you feel better working everyday in a polluted environment or one with clean and fresh air? Everybody should breathe the air biologically intended for their lungs. Access to fresh air is something that I firmly believe should be a human right. In conclusion, industrial countries could now have the opportunity to better the lives of not only the world by reducing emissions but the quality of life of their citizens as well.

 

Definitions 

(Def. 1):Nuclear fuel 

The nuclear fuel is a fissile material meaning it will undergo nuclear fission(def.2) when bombarded by a neutron. The nuclear fuel keeps the reaction going inside the reactor and produces the energy. An example of nuclear fuel is uranium-235.

 

(Def.2): Nuclear fission

Nuclear fission is when a neutron hits a fissile nucleus and splits into two. The splitting of the fissile material releases energy and neutrons. The neutrons will then go onto hitting the other nucleus of a fissile particule which causes this process to happen all over again, thus creating a chain reaction.  

 

(Def.3): Beta decay

Beta decay happens in radioactive particles. It is the process in which a proton turns into a neutron or a neutron turns into a proton to reach the element's desired ratio of proton to neutron. 

 

(Def. 4):Core meltdown

A core meltdown, informally known as a nuclear meltdown, is when the coolant is not cooling the reactor fuel down properly. This results in overheating of the reactor which leads to explosion and release of radioactive material that can be very dangerous.

Data

Figure 1: Pie Chart of Global Greenhouse Gas Emissions by Gas

Info: In research- Section 0: Reason for Project 

Source: “Global Greenhouse Gas Emissions Data.” United States Environmental Protection Agency, EPA, 7 Feb. 2024, www.epa.gov/ghgemissions/global-greenhouse-gas-emissions-data.

 

Figure 2: Molten Salt Reactor Diagram

Info: In research-Section 1.B: Introduction to MSR

Source: “File:Molten Salt Reactor.Svg.” Wikimedia Commons, commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Molten_Salt_Reactor.svg. 

 

Figure 3: Thorium Fuel Cycle Diagram

Info: In research-2.B Thorium Fuel Cycle

Source: “Article 1.” Research Gate, www.researchgate.net/figure/Overview-of-232-Th-to-233-U-conversion-taken-from-18_fig2_326332052.

Figure 4: Estimated U.S Energy Consumption in 2022

Info: As stated by the Thorium Molten Salt Reactor website, the  graph by Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory “indicates that industrial heat applications are virtually untouched by renewable energy sources” ( Source 6). Molten Salt reactors have the ability to become a low carbon footprint option to fuel the industrial sector whereas all other types of renewable energy could not due to the lower heat generation. The impact of cutting just fossil fuel use within the industrial sector alone, which is 25,5 % of all annual U.S carbon emissions (statistic from Source 6), would be a drastic impact on North America's carbon footprint.

Source: “Energy Flow Charts 2022:” Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory , Lawrence Livermore National Laborator, flowcharts.llnl.gov

Figure 5: Estimated World Thorium Resources

Info:In Research-4.C Application in Canada

Source: “Thorium.” Thorium - World Nuclear Association, World Nuclear Association , Nov. 2020, www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/current-and-future-generation/thorium.aspx.

Figure 6: Pie Chart of CO2 Emissions (by Countries)

Info: In Research-  5.D Application to other countries 

Source: “Global Greenhouse Gas Emissions Data.” United States Environmental Protection Agency, EPA, 7 Feb. 2024, www.epa.gov/ghgemissions/global-greenhouse-gas-emissions-data.

 

 

 

 

With our planet at stake, the time to convert to eco-friendly energy is now. By stepping in the direction of the future, we may be able to save the earth we have today. Thorium molten salt reactors provide the possibility for our cities to flourish in harmony with the environment; instead of opposed to it. Diverse countries all across the globe could have the ability to use an environmentally responsible source of energy to power the specified needs of their growing cities greenly. To conclude, thorium molten salt reactors propose an excellent solution to our crucial  green energy demands due to their safety, efficiency, flexibility, and sustainability. 

Definitions 

(Def. 1):Nuclear fuel 

The nuclear fuel is a fissile material meaning it will undergo nuclear fission(def.2) when bombarded by a neutron. The nuclear fuel keeps the reaction going inside the reactor and produces the energy. An example of nuclear fuel is uranium-235.

 

(Def.2): Nuclear fission

Nuclear fission is when a neutron hits a fissile nucleus and splits into two. The splitting of the fissile material releases energy and neutrons. The neutrons will then go onto hitting the other nucleus of a fissile particule which causes this process to happen all over again, thus creating a chain reaction.  

 

(Def.3): Beta decay

Beta decay happens in radioactive particles. It is the process in which a proton turns into a neutron or a neutron turns into a proton to reach the element's desired ratio of proton to neutron. 

 

(Def. 4):Core meltdown

A core meltdown, informally known as a nuclear meltdown, is when the coolant is not cooling the reactor fuel down properly. This results in overheating of the reactor which leads to explosion and release of radioactive material that can be very dangerous.

 

Citations

Source 1:
Lindsay, Rebecca, and Luann Dahlman. “Climate Change: Global Temperature.” NOAA Climate, Climate.gov, 18 Jan. 2024, www.climate.gov/news-features/understanding-climate/climate-change-global-temperature#:~:text=Highlights,0.20%C2%B0%20C)%20per%20decade.

Source 2:
Energy Education Team. “Molten Salt Reactor.” Energy Education, University of Calgary, energyeducation.ca/encyclopedia/Molten_salt_reactor#cite_note-6. 

Source 3:
Charatsidou, Elina. “Nuclear Physicist Explains - What Are Thorium Reactors?” YouTube, YouTube, 18 Dec. 2022, www.youtube.com/watch?v=148NI9j23Kg.

Source 4:
Vlasov, Artem. “Thorium’s Long-Term Potential in Nuclear Energy.” IAEA, International Atomic Energy Agency, Sept. 2023, www.iaea.org/bulletin/thoriums-long-term-potential-in-nuclear-energy#:~:text=In%20addition%20to%20the%20fact,%2Dday%20uranium%2Dfuelled%20reactors.

Source 5:
Sorensen, Kirk. “Thorium Can Give Humanity Clean, Pollution Free Energy | Kirk Sorensen | Tedxcoloradosprings.” YouTube, YouTube, 8 Jan. 2015, www.youtube.com/watch?v=kybenSq0KPo.

Source 6:
“The Thorium Molten Salt Reactor.” Stichting Thorium MSR, TMSR, www.thmsr.com/overview/#clean. Accessed 10 Mar. 2024.

Source 7:
“Thorium.” Thorium - World Nuclear Association, World Nuclear Association , Nov. 2020, www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/current-and-future-generation/thorium.aspx.

Source 8:
Clark, Kevin. “Is Thorium the Fuel of the Future to Revitalize Nuclear?” Power Engineering, Clarion Events North America, 13 Aug. 2019, www.power-eng.com/nuclear/reactors/is-thorium-the-fuel-of-the-future-to-revitalize-nuclear/#gref.

Source 9:
Dewar, Dale, et al. “Uranium Mining and Health.” National Library of Medicine, PubMed Central, July 2013, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3653646/#:~:text=Uranium%20mining%20has%20widespread%20effects,increased%20levels%20of%20background%20radiation.

Source 10:
Shellenberger, Michael. “Why I Changed My Mind about Nuclear Power: Michael Shellenberger: TEDxBerlin.” TED, Youtube, Sept. 2017, www.ted.com/talks/michael_shellenberger_why_i_changed_my_mind_about_nuclear_power?language=en.

 

Data

Figure 1: “Global Greenhouse Gas Emissions Data.” United States Environmental Protection Agency, EPA, 7 Feb. 2024, www.epa.gov/ghgemissions/global-greenhouse-gas-emissions-data.

Figure 2:  “File:Molten Salt Reactor.Svg.” Wikimedia Commons, commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Molten_Salt_Reactor.svg. 

Figure 3: “Article 1.” Research Gate, www.researchgate.net/figure/Overview-of-232-Th-to-233-U-conversion-taken-from-18_fig2_326332052.

Figure 4: “Energy Flow Charts 2022:” Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory , Lawrence Livermore National Laborator, flowcharts.llnl.gov

Figure 5: “Thorium.” Thorium - World Nuclear Association, World Nuclear Association , Nov. 2020, www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/current-and-future-generation/thorium.aspx.

I would like to thank my incredible science teacher Mr. Abbott for guiding me every step of the way with my project. Even though the project had a bit of a rocky start I am so thankful for all his help and everything he has done to make this project a success. I would also like to thank my family and friends for supporting me throughout this project. Special thanks to my parents Diane and Frank for helping me get my project into the system. Lastly I would like to thank all the incredible engineers and scienists who have studied designed and researched thorium molten salt reactors. Without you there would be no project!