My research study indicates how genetic modification affects our environment (plants, animals and micro-organisms).  The objective of my project is to investigate if genetic modification is good or bad for the environment.

My question:

How does genetic modification affect humans, plants, animals, and the environment?

Firstly, in late December I finalized my topic. In January I completed a large amount of background research and research. During January I researched what genetic modification is, genetic modification in plants, the pros and cons of genetic modification in plants, and the pros and cons of genetic modification in animals. In early February I finished all of my research: the pros and cons of genetic modification in humans, the long-term effects of genetic modification, the overall impacts of genetic modification, and how humans can reduce the negative effects of genetic modification. In mid-February, I started working on my Google slides to put on my tri-fold. Then in late February to early March, I inputed my research as well as my data onto the CYSF platform. Then, I wrote my conclusion, finished my acknowledgements, made my tri-fold and wrote my script for my presentation. Once I finished that I recorded my presentation and added it to the CYSF platform. Throughout my whole project, I continuously added my citations. 

Thesis 

Genetic modification is a method to change the characteristics of an animal, plant, microorganism or human. Scientists transfer DNA from one organism to another when genetically modifying an organism.[1] Genetic modification is also known as genetic engineering.[10] This process is accomplished through targeted removal of desired genes from one being to another.[1] In plants, there are two types of genetic modification. One type is known as cisgenesis which is the transfer of genetic material gathered from a related plant. The other type of genetic modification in plants is known as transgenesis which is the transfer of genetic material gathered from a non-related species.[1] Based on my background research I have concluded that genetic modification/genetic engineering is the process in which scientists modify the characteristics of an organism.

Scientific Principle

Genetic engineering also known as genetic modification is the alteration of an organism's genotype. This is done using recombinant DNA technology to modify an organism's DNA and achieve its desirable traits.[10] Genetic modification is a technique used to modify the characteristics of a human, plant, animal or microorganism. It is when a piece of DNA is transferred from one organism to another. Genetic modification is done through the targeted removal of desired genes from one organism to another.[1]

Genetic Modification In Plants

There are two types of genetic modification in plants: cisgenesis and transgenesis. Cisgenesis is the transfer of genetic material taken from a related plant.[1] An example of this type of genetic modification in plants is cross-fertilizing heterozygous plants that propagate vegetatively.[2] These plants would be potatoes, apples, bananas, etc. Transgenesis is the transfer of genetic material taken from non-related species.[1] An example is when food crops are genetically modified for pest and herbicide resistance.[3]

	Cisgenesis	Transgenesis
Description	The transfer of genetic material obtained from a related plant.	The transfer of genetic material obtained from a non-related species.
Example	When cross-fertilizing heterozygous plants which propagate vegetatively. (ie. potatoes, apples, bananas)	When food crops are genetically modified for pest and herbicide resistance.

Pros and Cons of Genetic Modification in Plants

There are many advantages and disadvantages of genetic modification (GM) in plants.

The advantages of genetic modification in plants are smaller uses of pesticides and disease and drought-resistant plants which require fewer environmental resources like water, fertilizer, etc. Some more advantages of genetic modification in plants are that they grow faster, there is more nutritious and tastier food, an increased supply of food with reduced cost and longer shelf life, food with more desirable traits (eg. potatoes produce less of a cancer-causing substance when fried), and medicinal food that could be used as vaccines or other medicines.[4] The disadvantages of genetic modification on plants is it can affect biodiversity (ex. existing species can be taken over by more dominant species).[5] This can also have an impact on non-target organisms and soil and water ecosystems another disadvantage is weeds that can not be killed by herbicides because of GM herbicide-tolerant crops (Superweeds) and some insects have resistance to toxins in GM insect-resistant crops (Superpests). Some more disadvantages are gene flow from GM crops is a threat to weedy and wild crop relatives, non-GM crops and food and organic farming, and genetic modification can cause contamination (serious ecological, economic and soil impacts) which poses a threat to organic certification and the future of organic food and farming. Lastly, genetic modification can cause an increase in herbicide use. Data has shown that from 1994-2020 herbicide sales in Canada have increased by 234% since GM crops (herbicide-tolerant crops) have been introduced.[6]

(See citation 7)

Pros	Cons
Smaller use of pesticides	Affect Biodiversity (eg. existing species can be taken over by more dominant species)  Negative impacts on non-target organisms and on soil and water ecosystems
Disease and drought-resistant plants which require fewer environmental resources (ie. water, fertilizer, etc)	Increased herbicide use  From 1994-2020 herbicide sales in Canada have increased by 234% since GM crops (herbicide-tolerant crops0 have been introduced
Faster growing plants	Weeds that can not be killed by herbicides because of the use of GM herbicide-tolerant crops (Superweeds)
More nutritious, tastier food	Some insects have resistance to toxins in GM insect-resistant crops (Superpests)
Increased supply of food, reduced cost and longer shelf life	Contamination (serious ecological, economic social impacts) GM contamination poses a threat to organic certification and the future of organic food and farming
Food with more desirable traits (ex. potatoes produce less of a cancer-causing substance when fried)	Gene flow from GM crops is a threat to weedy and wild crop relatives, non-GM crops and foods and organic farming
Medicinal foods that could be used as vaccines or other medicines

Pros and Cons of Genetic Modification in Animals

Genetic modification can have positive and negative effects on animals.

The positive effects are that animals are better able to resist disease, they can grow faster, and reproduce more efficiently than the current species of animals.[8] The negative effects of genetic modification on animals are the alteration of an animal's normal genetic homeostasis and susceptibility to stress. Other negative effects of genetic modification in animals are reduced fertility and lameness*.[11]

*Lameness: the state of being unable to walk because of leg or foot pain.[12]

Pros	Cons
Better able to resist disease	Alteration of an animal's normal genetic homeostasis
Can grow faster	Lameness (the state of being unable to walk because of leg or foot pain)
More efficiently reproduce than current species of animals	Susceptibility to stress
	Reduces fertility

Pros and Cons of Genetic Modification in Microorganisms

There are many merits for genetic modification in microorganisms.

The merits of genetic modification in microorganisms are medicinal benefits to the world's growing population (ex. vaccines). Microorganisms produce enzymes extracellularly which simplifies the extraction method during the purification to produce food enzymes, and specific microbial strains can be selected to collect well-characterized enzymes with specific properties to produce food enzymes (FE). Some more merits of genetic modification in microorganisms is the reduced production cost to produce FE due to shorter production times which requires smaller production facilities. Higher yields can be collected, and the enzymes have higher activity and pH stability (e.g. enzymes collected from thermophilic microorganisms can function at a higher temperature, and they can easily be genetically modified to obtain optimized enzyme products without the production of unwanted metabolites). Genetic modification can also allow for the expression of enzymes in organisms that would not normally produce a particular enzyme.[54] 

Pros
Medical benefits to the world’s growing population
Microorganisms produce enzymes extracellularly (simplifies the extraction method during the purification to produce food enzymes)
Specific MB strains can be selected to collect well-characterized enzymes with specific properties to produce food enzymes (FE)
Reduced production cost to produce FE because of shorter production times which means smaller production facilities are needed
Higher yields can be collected
Higher activity and stability (e.g. enzymes collected from thermophilic microorganisms will have a higher temperature tolerance)
Can easily be genetically modified to obtain optimized enzyme products, higher yields, and better characteristics
The ease of introducing genetic modifications in the production of microorganism strains to improve industrial enzyme production
Production of food enzymes allows the production yield to increase which improves the characteristics of the produce enzyme and limits the production of unwanted metabolites. It also expresses enzymes in organisms that would not normally produce this enzyme.
Recombinant enzymes are used to improve an enzyme's characteristics (activity, temperature optimum, and pH stability)

Pros and Cons of Genetic Modification in Humans

Genetic modification can have many benefits and drawbacks to humans.

The future benefits of genetic modification to humans are it can be used to prevent, treat or cure certain inherited disorders. These include Cystic fibrosis, Alpha-1 antitrypsin deficiency, Hemophilia, Beta thalassemia and Sickle cell disease. It also may be used to treat cancer or infections, such as HIV.[28,29] The disadvantages of genetic modification to humans (potential risks) are organ and tissue damage if an injection is involved, can cause allergic reactions and certain types of cancers.[30] Other disadvantages of genetic modification to humans are the possibility of targeting the wrong cells, the possibility of infection caused by disease and the possibility of inducing a tumor. Lastly, humans can go through an unwanted immune system reaction (which may cause inflammation, and in severe cases organ failure).[32]

 

Pros (In the future)	Cons (Potential risks)
Prevent, treat or cure certain inherited disorders…	Damage to organs or tissues if an injection is involved
Cystic fibrosis	Allergic reactions
Alpha-1 antitrypsin deficiency	Certain types of cancers
Hemophilia	Targeting the wrong cells (cells may be damaged causing other illnesses or diseases like cancer)
Beta thalassemia	Infection caused by disease
Sickle cell disease	Possibility of causing a tumor
May be used to treat cancer or infections, including HIV	Unwanted immune system reaction (may cause inflammation, and in severe cases organ failure)

Long-Term Effects of Genetic Modification

Genetically modified organisms (GMOs) can contribute to the development of cancer by raising levels of potentially carcinogenic substances in the body, an increase in allergies, an increase in antibiotic resistance and problems with the endocrine system. Some more long-term effects that come with genetic modification are reproductive system disorders (congenital birth defects), increased aging symptoms, cancerous tumor growth, autism prevalence, inflammatory bowel disease, intestinal infection, acute renal failure and hepatitis C. Other effects include ADHD, anxiety, schizophrenia, liver and intrahepatic bile duct cancer, kidney and renal pelvis cancer, urinary/bladder cancer, thyroid cancer, acute myeloid leukemia, diabetes and strokes. Additionally, some more long-term effects of genetic modification are senile dementia, Alzheimer's, Parkinson's disease, obesity, hypertension, anemia, dementia, insomnia and vitamin D deficiency. An advantage is that GMOs support climate change mitigation as illustrated below.[17]

 

The potential avoided greenhouse gas emissions resulting from the yield increases of genetically modified crops (in the European Union). Graph (A) estimates per hectare and year and Graph (B) estimates for total European Union crop area per year. 

COCs: carbon opportunity costs of land use.

PEMs: production emmisions

[See citation 16]

What Is Glyphosate?

Glyphosate is a herbicide that is most widely used in Canada today. This herbicide plays an important role in agriculture and non-agricultural land management. It is used to control weeds including invasive weed species. Glyphosate can also be used to control toxic plants like poison ivy.[58] 

The graphs below further illustrate the long-term effects of genetic modification. They display a similar trend of an increase in various medical conditions.

[See citation 18]

[See citation 19]

[See citation 20]

[See citation 21]

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Ways In Which Humans Can Help Reduce Negative Effects of Genetic Modification on the Environment (and what it does)

Three of the many ways in which humans can help reduce the negative effects of genetic modification on the environment are by buying organic, looking for "non-GMO" labels, and avoiding at-risk ingredients. There are five at-risk ingredients which are also known as the "Big Five". The first of the "Big Five" is corn: corn flour, meal, oil, starch, gluten, syrup, and sweeteners such as fructose, dextrose, and glucose; Modified corn starch. The second at-risk ingredient is beet sugar: sugar not specified as 100% cane sugar is likely from GE sugar beets. The third at-risk ingredient is soy: soy flour, lecithin, protein, isolate, and isoflavone, Vegetable oil, and vegetable protein. The fourth at-risk ingredient is canola: Canola oil (also called rapeseed oil). The last of the "Big Five" is cotton: Cottonseed oil.[39]

(Data is also in research portion)

[See citation 7]

The potential avoided greenhouse gas emissions resulting from the yield increases of genetically modified crops (in the European Union). Graph (A) estimates per hectare and year and Graph (B) estimates for total European Union crop area per year. 

COCs: carbon opportunity costs of land use.

PEMs: production emissions. 

[See citation 16]

[See citation 18]

[See citation 19]

[See citation 20]

[See citation 21]

 [See citation 22]

 [See citation 23]

 [See citation 24]

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 [See citation 30]

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 [See citation 33]

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 [See citation 34]

Conclusion

Genetic modification is the alteration of an organism's (living thing) genotype using recombinant DNA technology to modify an organism's DNA and to achieve its desirable traits. There are two types of genetic modification/genetic engineering in plants: cisgenesis and transgenesis. There are many merits and demerits of genetic modification in plants. One merit is that disease and drought-resistant plants require fewer environmental resources (ie. water, fertilizer, etc.) and one demerit is an increase in herbicide use. There are also pros and cons of genetic modification in animals. For example, they are better able to resist disease but they have a higher susceptibility to stress. In microorganisms, a positive effect is that there are medicinal benefits to the growing population. However, there is a possibility of creating new or worse viruses. Genetic modification in humans also has benefits and drawbacks. For example, in the future genetic modification may be able to prevent, treat, or cure inherited disorders like beta thalassemia. A drawback is that there is a risk of an unwanted immune system reaction. There are numerous long-term effects of genetic modification like cancerous tumor growth, climate change mitigation, schizophrenia, insomnia, etc. Some ways in which humans can help reduce the negative effects of genetic modification on the environment are by buying organic, looking for "non-GMO" labels and avoiding at-risk ingredients.

What Next?

There is conflicting information regarding whether genetically modified foods are safe to consume. I can take my research further by investigating how genetic modification causes long-term effects in humans. I can also take it further by researching if the various medical conditions occur only because of genetic modification. People would be interested in knowing this because then they understand if genetically modified foods are safe to consume and at what quantity. Future research can also be used as a guide for people to know if they should be buying organic or GM foods (genetically modified foods). It can also be used for people who want to know if GM foods are harmful to them.

 

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Credits to Researchgate, Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute, Regeneration International, Truthout, and Scientific Research Publishing.

I would like to thank my family for supporting me and helping me with this project. I would also like to thank my science fair coordinator Ms. Ontko because without her I would not be doing this.